Karima A. Mahmoud

Photovoltaikanlagen wandeln Licht in elektrischen Gleichstrom (DC) um, indem sie den photoelektrischen Effekt ausnutzen. Solar-PV hat sich zu einer schnell wachsenden Multi-Milliarden-Industrie entwickelt, verbessert kontinuierlich ihre Kosteneffizienz und hat zusammen mit CSP das gr te Potenzial aller erneuerbaren Technologien. Konzentrierte Solarenergiesysteme (CSP) verwenden Linsen oder Spiegel und Nachf hrsysteme, um einen gro en Bereich des Sonnenlichts in einen kleinen Strahl zu b ndeln. PV verwendet Solarzellen, die zu Solarmodulen zusammengesetzt sind, um Sonnenlicht in Strom umzuwandeln. PV-Systeme reichen von kleinen, privaten und kommerziellen Aufdach- oder geb udeintegrierten Installationen bis hin zu gro en Photovoltaik-Kraftwerken im industriellen Ma stab. Die vorherrschende PV-Technologie ist kristallines Silizium, w hrend die D nnschicht-Solarzellentechnologie etwa 10 Prozent des weltweiten Photovoltaik-Einsatzes ausmacht. In den letzten Jahren hat die PV-Technologie ihre Stromerzeugungseffizienz verbessert, die Installationskosten pro Watt sowie die energetische Amortisationszeit reduziert und bis 2014 in mindestens 30 verschiedenen M rkten die Netzparit t erreicht. Geb udeintegrierte Photovoltaik- oder "Onsite"-PV-Systeme nutzen vorhandene Fl chen und Strukturen und erzeugen Strom in der N he des Verbrauchsortes.

Photovoltaic system performance is the ratio of actual solar PV system output compared with expected values, which is essential for proper solar PV facility's operation and maintenance. The performance of a solar PV facility is a function of the climatic conditions, the equipment used and the system configuration. The primary energy input is the global light irradiance in the plane of the solar arrays, and this in turn is a combination of the direct and the diffuse radiation.The performance is measured by PV monitoring systems, which include a data logging device and a weather measurement device (on-site device or an independent weather data source). Irradiance sensing is very important for the PV industry and can be classified to two main categories - on-site pyranometers and satellite remote sensing; recently, Industrial IOT-powered sensor-less weather measurement approach has also evolved as the third option.

Scrap tyres are a category of waste whose disposal might be problematic due to their highly complex structure, diverse composition of the raw material, and quality of the rubber. Rubber represents the 70-80% of the tyre mass, while the rest is made of steel belts and textile overlays, which during recycling have to be separated from the rubber. Tyre recycling is based on the mechanical, thermal or chemical removal of the rubber fraction. Landfilling of waste tyres was widely adopted in the past and it is still practiced in some countries. Waste tyres may create problems because they are flexible and cannot be compacted.The most noticeable problem asso- ciated with large tyre storage areas is the potential fire hazard they present. Once a tyre pile catches fire, it is very hard, if not impossible, to extinguish. In some instances, tyre piles have been burning for several months with the black fumes being visible for many miles.

Photovoltaic systems convert light into electrical direct current (DC) by taking advantage of the photoelectric effect. Solar PV has turned into a multi-billion, fast-growing industry, continues to improve its cost-effectiveness, and has the most potential of any renewable technologies together with CSP. Concentrated solar power (CSP) systems use lenses or mirrors and tracking systems to focus a large area of sunlight into a small beam. PV uses solar cells assembled into solar panels to convert sunlight into electricity. PV systems range from small, residential and commercial rooftop or building integrated installations, to large utility-scale photovoltaic power station. The predominant PV technology is crystalline silicon, while thin-film solar cell technology accounts for about 10 percent of global photovoltaic deployment. In recent years, PV technology has improved its electricity generating efficiency, reduced the installation cost per watt as well as its energy payback time, and reached grid parity in at least 30 different markets by 2014. Building-integrated photovoltaics or "onsite" PV systems use existing land and structures and generate power close to where it's consumed.

The smart grid makes use of technologies such as state estimation, improve fault detection and allow self-healing of the network without the intervention of technicians. This will ensure more reliable supply of electricity, and reduced vulnerability to natural disasters or attack. Although multiple routes are touted as a feature of the smart grid, the old grid also featured multiple routes. Initial power lines in the grid were built using a radial model, later connectivity was guaranteed via multiple routes, referred to as a network structure. However, this created a new problem: if the current flow or related effects across the network exceed the limits of any particular network element, it could fail, and the current would be shunted to other network elements, which eventually may fail also, causing a domino effect. A technique to prevent this is load shedding by rolling blackout or voltage reduction (brownout).

Experimental projects of solar roadways have multiplied all over the world: the potentials are endless, but many doubts remain. Think of the miles and miles of roads all over the world, what if these roads could generate energy? As a result, and according to various studies, about 0.2- 0.5 % of the Earth's surface is covered by roads. This percentage is expected to increase by 60% by 2050. It is an impressive amount of land, simply taken from nature, generating a strongenvironmental impact. But how can this trend be transformed into a positive impact for the environment? Recent technological innovations regarding the latest generation of photovoltaic panels, can now withstand heavy vehicle loading with a hyper-resistant structure. Use of these breakthrough solar panels could transform our traditional asphalt roads into huge power generators.

In physics, energy is the quantitative property that must be transferred to an object in order to perform work on, or to heat, the object. Energy is a conserved quantity; the law of conservation of energy states that energy can be converted in form, but not created or destroyed. The SI unit of energy is the joule, which is the energy transferred to an object by the work of moving it a distance of 1.0 metre against a force of 1.0 newton. Common forms of energy include the kinetic energy of a moving object, the potential energy stored by an object's position in a force field (gravitational, electric or magnetic), the elastic energy stored by stretching solid objects, the chemical energy released when a fuel burns, the radiant energy carried by light, and the thermal energy due to an object's temperature.Living organisms require energy to stay alive, such as the energy humans get from food. Human civilization requires energy to function, which it gets from energy resources such as fossil fuels, nuclear fuel, or renewable energy.

A solar cell or photovoltaic cell is a device which generates electricity directly from visible light. However, their efficiency is fairly low. So, the solar cell costs expensive according to other energy resources products. Several factors affect solar cell efficiency. In this concern, the proposed work presents the most important factors that affecting efficiency of solar cells. These effects are cell temperature, MPPT (maximum power point tracking) and energy conversion efficiency. The changing of these factors improves solar cell efficiency for more reliable applications. On the other hand, some other factors can really degrade the PV-efficiency from which are: - Solar irradiations, - Ultra-violet irradiation, - Humidity, - Snow and wind, - Hail, - High temperature, - Human settlements, - Sand and the smaller form dusts, - Some types

Energy storage is the capture of energy produced at one time for use at a later time. A device that stores energy is generally called an accumulator or battery. Energy comes in multiple forms including radiation, chemical, gravitational potential, electrical potential, electricity, elevated temperature, latent heat and kinetic. Energy storage involves converting energy from forms that are difficult to store to more conveniently or economically storable forms. Common examples of energy storage are the rechargeable battery, which stores chemical energy readily convertible to electricity to operate a mobile phone, the hydroelectric dam, which stores energy in a reservoir as gravitational potential energy, and ice storage tanks, which store ice frozen by cheaper energy at night to meet peak daytime demand for cooling. Fossil fuels such as coal and gasoline store ancient energy derived from sunlight by organisms that later died, became buried and over time were then converted into these fuels. Food (which is made by the same process as fossil fuels) is a form of energy stored in chemical form.

Societies are usually use energy for transportation, manufacturing, illumination, heating and air conditioning, and communication, for industrial, commercial, and domestic purposes. Energy resources may be classified as primary resources, where the resource can be used in substantially its original form, or as secondary resources, where the energy source must be converted into a more conveniently usable form. Non-renewable resources are significantly depleted by human use, whereas renewable resources are produced by ongoing processes that can sustain indefinite human exploitation. In this concern, thousands of people are employed in the energy industry. The conventional industry comprises the petroleum industry, the natural gas industry, the electrical power industry, and the nuclear industry. New energy industries include the renewable energy industry, comprising alternative and sustainable manufacture, distribution, and sale of alternative fuels.

Open-source hardware (OSH) consists of physical artifacts of technology designed and offered by the open-design movement. Both free and open-source software (FOSS) and open- source hardware are created by this open-source culture movement and apply a like concept to a variety of components. It is sometimes, thus, referred to as free and open-source hardware (FOSH). The term usually means that information about the hardware is easily discerned so that others can make it - coupling it closely to the maker movement. Hardware design (i.e. mechanical drawings, schematics, bills of material, PCB layout data, HDL source code and integrated circuit layout data), in addition to the software that drives the hardware, are all released under free/libre terms. The original sharer gains feedback and potentially improvements on the design from the FOSH community. There is now significant evidence that such sharing can drive a high return on investment for the scientific community.