Martin Sicker

The five studies in this volume focus on aspects of the narratives in the Five Books of Moses (The Pentateuch) that have frequently been glossed over by commentators, ancient and modern, and remain contentious to this very day. These studies address issues such as the complex triangular relationships between Sarah, Abraham, and Hagar as depicted in the book of Genesis; the 'bridegroom of blood' episode in the story of Moses and his Midianite wife Zipporah as related in the book of Exodus; the meaning and implications of the Golden Rule of biblical ethics as set forth in the book of Leviticus; the zealotry of Phinehas as seen from different perspectives in the book of Numbers; and the differences between the episodes of the Israelite spies as depicted in the books of Numbers and Deuteronomy. Although these studies do not claim to resolve the issues they examine, it is their purpose to stimulate further interest in the complexities of the ancient biblical narratives and the hidden insights about human nature they provide.

The fundamental basis of Judaism, as is well known, is the Torah, the teachings contained in the Pentateuch, the five biblical books the composition of which is traditionally attributed to Moses. These teachings may be grouped in two basic categories, matters between man and man, individually as well as societally, and matters between man and God. The basic guidelines that apply in matters between man and man are referred to as mishpatim or 'ordinances, ' whereas those applying to matters between man and God are referred to as 'statutes.' The fundamental distinction between the two categories is that the 'ordinances' are subject to human judgment, whereas the 'statutes' are not; the divine reason for them a mystery, about which people may speculate but cannot know for certain. The present work is primarily concerned with four 'statutes' that have direct and significant impact on the lives of those committed to compliance with them. Since simply rejecting any of them is not an acceptable option, over the millennia since their codification in the Torah efforts have been made to deal with them under conditions that are significantly different from those that prevailed at the beginning of their revelation. Given that the 'statutes' as set forth in the Torah cannot be tampered with, issues have been raised regarding how they are to be applied in the contemporary Jewish world. These reflections are not intended to propose answers to those issues, but only to clarify their significance and their present treatment in the various schools of Judaic thought.

Judaism, the origin of which dates from the rejection of polytheism by the patriarch Abraham nearly four thousand years ago, is committed to the worship of the one and only God. In the course of that long period of devotion, the character of that worship has evolved from a primitive form to progressively more sophisticated approaches necessitated by historical circumstances. The present study is concerned primarily with the original concept of worship of the divine in the form of a sacrificial cult, conducted by a priestly hierarchy, as described in the biblical Pentateuch, and the later transition to a democratized form of verbal worship conducted by the laity in a synagogue or by the individual in one's home, as described in the rabbinic literature. One of the significant difficulties encountered in such a study is the translation of biblical and rabbinic Hebrew texts into English, which employs terminology such as 'worship' and 'prayer', terms which have no reliable biblical or rabbinic Hebrew equivalent. Accordingly, the common equation of worship, in the general sense of reverence paid to a god, with prayer, in the more precise Jewish sense of supplication or petition, can be misleading. Indeed, prayer, understood in the latter sense, constitutes a rather small segment of the voluminous liturgy of Jewish worship, much of which is drawn directly from Scripture, whereas prayer as petition, both formal and personal, is primarily the product of individuals confronting a variety of challenges to their and their coreligionists' social and physical wellbeing. The principal focus of this study is on prayer, understood in the latter sense, which is traditionally interconnected with benedictions intended to give hope to those petitioning for divine beneficence.

The central theme of this study is the eschatology of Judaism as conceived by its proponents from remote antiquity to the present day, eschatology being a branch of theology concerned with the end of history and time as we know it. Eschatological theories and beliefs will be found in every culture where its thinkers struggle to make sense of their lives and history, and most particularly regarding what happens to them and their world after their lives come to an end. As a consequence, such beliefs or theories must necessarily be highly imaginative because they relate to a period beyond time. The very term 'afterlife' captures the frustrating ambiguity of the notion of eschatology for neither our language nor our conceptual skills can deal with an 'end' to time. There is no 'after' to time, for the term 'after' is itself a time-related notion. There is only an 'after' within time. Nonetheless, eschatological notions attempt to takes us beyond time. Judaism tends to be precise where it touches human activity, while thought and doctrine remain fluid. Thus we find widely varying conjectures by individual Jewish sages in antiquity, further imaginative guesses by medieval rabbis and philosophers, and continuing attempts to grapple with the subject in the modern and contemporary eras. This examination of Judaic eschatological thought is subdivided into seven topical chapters: The idea of an afterlife, the resurrection of the dead, the immortality of the soul, transmigration or reincarnation, modern religious ideas relating to resurrection and immortality, messianism, and divine reward and retribution after death.

It has been asserted that monotheism, in the Jewish tradition, has long been understood both exoterically and esoterically. In the exoteric Scripture-based rabbinic tradition, monotheism is the belief in a one and only God, a belief which goes hand in hand with the affirmation of distinct individual and divine existences, so that there is a dualism between humanity and God. In the esoteric or mystic tradition, this dualism is overcome by a conception of monotheism in which God is One, not only in his 'Lordship' but also in his universal reality. That is, God is the only reality, so that everything which exists is in essence an aspect of divinity. Jewish mysticism has both a devotional or practical and an intellectual or speculative side. On its devotional side it emphasizes those aspects of the biblical precepts which serve to promote direct communion between the worshipper and God. On its speculative side it is especially concerned with outlining and bringing into relief the link or links between God and man, or more generally between the Creator and the universe. The focus of this study is on the questions of how and why Jewish mysticism arose and underwent a variegated evolution throughout much of the history of the Jewish people from remote antiquity to the present day.

The eight studies in this volume focus on additional aspects of the narratives in the Five Books of Moses that have frequently been glossed over by commentators, ancient and modern, and remain contentious to this very day. These studies address subjects such as the primal mission of man in the creation narrative, the 'covenant between the pieces, ' the symbolism of circumcision, the story of Jacob and his four wives, and the rape of Dinah, as depicted in the book of Genesis; the story of the exodus from Egypt as related in the book of Exodus; the reason for the premature death of the sons of Aaron, Nadav and Avihu, and the reason for the dietary laws, as set forth in the book of Leviticus. Although these studies do not claim to resolve the issues they examine, it is their purpose to stimulate further interest in the complexities of the ancient biblical narratives and the hidden insights about human nature they provide.

The geopolitical history of the Middle East in antiquity is principally the story of the continuing struggle for domination of the trade routes of the eastern littoral of the Mediterranean Sea, some of the most valued of which passed through the relatively narrow strip of territory stretching from the Egyptian frontier in the Sinai desert to southern Syria, and from there to Mesopotamia. That strip of territory, bounded by the Mediterranean Sea to the west and the Jordan River to the east, known as Cisjordan, constituted the primary land-bridge between northeastern Africa and southwestern Asia. As a consequence of its geopolitical role as a buffer zone between Egypt and the major powers of antiquity, it was always in the interests of the dominant powers of the region to keep that strip of territory divided into numerous small city-states that would be dependent on one or the other of the major powers for their political survival. The present study is primarily concerned with the political history of the Jewish states that emerged in Cisjordan in antiquity, in effect continuing the narrative of my previous study, The Rise and Fall of the Ancient Israelite States, which concluded with the final destruction of the First Hebrew Commonwealth by the Babylonians, including the Temple built in Jerusalem by Solomon, in 586 BCE. This study begins with a brief discussion of the circumstances that led to that disastrous event and its aftermath. The subsequent Persian conquest of Babylonia unexpectedly led to the emergence of what is frequently spoken of as the Second Hebrew Commonwealth or the Second Temple period. The present study reviews the political history of the Jews in the Land of Israel between the destruction of the First Temple to the destruction of the Second Temple, nearly seven hundred years later, and its aftermath, until the early second century CE.

This book discusses the new ideological synthesis of Judaism, nationalism, and the Land of Israel and its implications for the future of the Jewish state. It explores the significant distinctions between modern Zionism and the traditional Jewish nationalism.

The studies in this volume discuss some of the issues implicit but not resolved in the Hebrew Scriptures including the problems inherent in the topics of theology and religious philosophy as discussed and argued by scholars for more than two millennia. The studies address the problem of philosophy, the troublesome issues of moral autonomy and divine omniscience and theodicy, from a Judaic perspective. In addition, it includes a study of the biblical story of the Golden Calf and it religious implications that are more complex than a cursory reading of the biblical text will suggest. Finally, it includes a discussion of the often misunderstood concepts of the prophet and prophecy as set forth in the biblical texts. Although this book does not and cannot resolve the philosophical and theological issues that have persisted through the millennia, it hopes to make clear how these issues have been wrestled with from a Judaic perspectives, which will have relevance with regard to the perspectives on these matters of other monotheistic faiths.

It should come as no surprise that Judaism, which has existed as the religion and culture of the children of Israel since the days of Moses, more than three millennia ago, has had occasion to institute markers reflective of its development and history from then to the present day. The present work, 'Reflections on the Major Holy Days of Judaism, ' is intentionally limited in scope to those occasions earmarked as 'holy convocations' in the primary sourcebooks of Judaism, The Five Books of Moses, known in Jewish lore as the Torah, and in many translations as the Pentateuch. It is these 'holy convocations' that dominate Judaism's annual religious and liturgical calendar, yet the biblical texts that ordain them are in many instances less than clear with regard to their observance. As a result, over the millennia since their original promulgation, scholars and others have struggled with the problem of defining in acceptable and actionable terms the purported intent of the sacred texts, a process that continues to the present day. This study recalls the notable reflections of scholars since the first century C.E., as well as their disagreements, on the evolution of the Major Holy Days of Judaism, their significance, traditions, and distinctive customs.

The stories in the Book of Genesis have been studied intensely for more than two millennia, providing a virtual mountain of commentary on every aspect of the narratives contained therein. Viewed from a traditional perspective, the stories related in Genesis are essentially graphic philosophical and theological narratives designed to convey profound ideas and insights that would otherwise be found only in tomes designed for students of philosophy and theology. A close substantive examination of these narratives, as presented in the Masoretic text, but often lost in translation where the subtleties of the Hebrew wording are glossed over, will reveal a treasure trove of insights into the fundamental issues of religious belief, the divine-human relationship, free will and determinism, the complex nature of humankind, and theodicy. The present work contains six 'deep dive' studies of selected narratives in the book of Genesis that continue to address questions of theological significance in addition to the relationship of man to the Creator, as well as to his fellow man. The first study in this collection focuses on The First Verse of the book of Genesis and explores the vast implications of its seven Hebrew terms, as considered by commentators for two millennia. The second, The Garden of Eden, deals with the moral implications of the relationship between man and God. The third, The Covenant, deals with the reasons why Abraham was chosen to be the progenitor of the civilization ultimately destined to change the course of human history. The fourth, Jacob's Dream, explores the symbolisms and implications of this tale of interaction between man and the celestial world. The fifth, The Joseph Saga, probes the question of man's free will and divine providential intervention in human affairs. The sixth, Jacob's Final Days, examines in depth the Patriarch Jacob's reflections on the legacy he leaves behind as he departs the scene. It is the hope and expectation of the author of these studies that the reader will come away from them with even more questions about the biblical texts than they had before. As will be seen there has always been little consensus over the centuries about the meanings of these essentially 'right brain' texts, primarily because they are constructed and written in a manner that tends to challenge 'left brain' analysis. Nonetheless, their study remains intellectually important because the topics they deal with are of great pertinence to contemporary society.

This book provides unique insights into the profound religious and cultural issues underlying the increasingly ideological divisions within Israeli society over the questions of territorial concessions and the future character of the state. It explores the significant distinctions between modern Zionism, a primarily secular nationalist movement modeled after the European movements of the nineteenth century, and the much older traditional Jewish nationalism, which is deeply rooted in ancient religion and culture. Dr. Sicker offers a concise overview of the 3,000-year intellectual history of Jewish nationalism, within which modern secular Zionism represents a relatively brief—although immensely important—interlude that may be entering its final stage as other more traditional religious nationalist concepts seek to take its place as the national ideology of the State of Israel. An analysis of how Jewish religious nationalism has shaped the history of the Jews, this book examines the national and territorial dimensions of classical Judaism, explains the survival of the nationalist idea despite the repeated loss of independence and the exile of the majority of the people from their homeland, and demonstrates how the nineteenth-century religious reform movement sought to counter both the growth of Zionism and the resurgence of traditional Jewish nationalism. The book concludes with a discussion of the new ideological synthesis of Judaism, nationalism, and the Land of Israel and its implications for the future of the Jewish state.

The stories in the book of Genesis have been studied intensely for more than two millennia, providing a virtual mountain of commentary on every aspect of the narratives contained therein. Viewed from a traditional perspective, the stories related in Genesis are essentially graphic philosophical and theological narratives designed to convey profound ideas and insights that would otherwise be found only in tomes designed for students of philosophy and theology. A close substantive examination of these narratives, as presented in the Masoretic text but often lost in translation where the subtleties of the Hebrew wording are glossed over, will reveal a treasure trove of insights into the fundamental issues of religious belief, the divine-human relationship, freewill and determinism, the complex nature of humankind, and theodicy, to name a few of the issues dealt with in the narratives. The present work contains four "deep dive" studies of key interrelated narratives in the first twenty-two chapters of Genesis that address the questions of the nature of man and his relationship to God and, most critically, the distinction between divine justice and human justice. It is the hope and expectation of the author of these studies that the reader will come away from them with even more questions about the biblical texts than they had before. As will be seen, there has always been little consensus over the centuries about the meanings of these essentially right-brained texts, primarily because they are constructed and written in a manner that tends to challenge left-brained analysis. Nonetheless, they remain intellectually important because the topics they deal with are of great pertinence to contemporary society.